The Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus (r. 556 BC – 539 BC) at its greatest territorial extent Within its borders lies the ancient land of Sumer, which emerged between 6000 and 5000 BC during the Neolithic Ubaid period.[32] Sumer is recognised as the world's earliest civilisation, marking the beginning of urban development, written language, and monumental architecture.[32] Iraq's territory also includes the heartlands of the Akkadian, Neo-Sumerian, Babylonian, Neo-Assyrian, and Neo-Babylonian empires, which dominated Mesopotamia and much of the Ancient Near East during the Bronze and Iron Ages.[32] The Iraq of antiquity was an innovation stronghold, producing early written languages, literary works, and significant advancements in astronomy, mathematics, law, and philosophy. This era of indigenous rule ended in 539 BC when the Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great, who declared himself the "King of Babylon". The city of Babylon, the ancient seat of Babylonian power, became one of the key capitals of the Achaemenid Empire. Ancient Iraq, known as the Mesopotamia, is home to world's first Jewish diaspora community, which emerged during the Babylonian exile. The Babylonians were defeated by the Persian Empire, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great. Following the fall of Babylon, the Achaemenid Empire took control of the Mesopotamian region. Enslaved Jews were freed from the Babylonian captivity, though many remained in the land and thus the Jewish community grew in the region. Iraq is the location of numerous Jewish sites, which are also revered by the Muslims and Christians. In the following centuries, the regions constituting modern Iraq came under the control of several empires, including the Greeks, Parthians, and Romans, establishing new centres like Seleucia and Ctesiphon. By the 3rd century AD, the region fell under Persian control through the Sasanian Empire, during which time Arab tribes from South Arabia migrated into Lower Mesopotamia, leading to the formation of the Sassanid-aligned Lakhmid kingdom. Middle Ages Main articles: Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia, Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia, Siege of Baghdad (1401), Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555), and Portuguese–Safavid wars Abbasid Caliphate with capitals in Baghdad and Samarra c. 850 The Arabic name al-ʿIrāq likely originated during this period. The Sasanian Empire was eventually conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century, bringing Iraq under Islamic rule after the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636. The city of Kufa, founded shortly thereafter, became a central hub for the Rashidun dynasty until their overthrow by the Umayyads in 661. Karbala is considered as one of the holiest cities in Shia Islam, following the Battle of Karbala, which took place in 680. With the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate in the mid-8th century, Iraq became the centre of Islamic rule, with Baghdad, founded in 762, serving as the capital. Baghdad flourished during the Islamic Golden Age, becoming a global hub for culture, science, and intellectualism. However, the city's prosperity declined following the Buwayhid and Seljuq invasions in the 10th century and suffered further with the Mongol invasion of 1258. Iraq later came under the control of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. During the years 1747–1831, Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin, who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow the Mamluk regime and reimposed their direct control over Iraq. Modern Iraq Main articles: Mandatory Iraq and Kingdom of Iraq Nuri Pasha al-Said (1888–1958) served eight terms as prime minister during Mandatory Iraq and the Hashemite Kingdom Iraq's modern history began in the wake of World War I, as the region emerged from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.[35] Arab forces, inspired by the promise of independence, had helped dismantle the Ottoman hold on the Middle East, but the dream of a united, sovereign Arab state was soon dashed.[35] Despite agreements made with Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif of Makkah, the European powers had different plans for the region. Following the British withdrawal of support for a unified Arab state, Hussein's son, Faisal, briefly declared the Kingdom of Syria in 1920, encompassing parts of what are now Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, and Syria.[35] However, the kingdom was short-lived, crushed by local opposition and the military might of France, which had been granted a mandate over Syria.[35] In Iraq, under British mandate, tensions were rising as local forces increasingly resisted foreign control.[35] A rebellion erupted, challenging British authority, and the need for a new strategy became clear.[35] In 1921, the Cairo Conference, led by British officials including Winston Churchill and T. E. Lawrence, decided that Faisal, now exiled in London, would become the king of Iraq.[35] This decision was seen as a way to maintain British influence in the region while placating local demands for leadership.[35] Upon his coronation, he focused on unifying a land formerly divided into three Ottoman provinces—Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra.[35] He worked hard to gain the support of Iraq's diverse population, including both Sunnis and Shiites, and paid special attention to the country's Shiite communities, symbolically choosing the date of his coronation to coincide with Eid al-Ghadeer, a key day for Shiite Muslims.[35] His reign laid the foundations of modern Iraq.[35] Faisal worked to establish key state institutions and fostered a sense of national identity.[35] His education reforms included the founding of Ahl al-Bayt University in Baghdad, and he encouraged the migration of Syrian exiles to Iraq to serve as doctors and educators.[35] Faisal also envisioned infrastructural links between Iraq, Syria, and Jordan, including plans for a railway and an oil pipeline to the Mediterranean.[35] Although Faisal succeeded in securing greater autonomy for Iraq, British influence remained strong, particularly in the country's oil industry.[35] In 1930, Iraq signed a treaty with Britain that gave the country a measure of political independence while maintaining British control over key aspects, including military presence and oil rights.[35] By 1932, Iraq gained formal independence, becoming a member of the League of Nations.[35] Faisal's reign was marked by his efforts to balance the pressures of external influence and internal demands for sovereignty.[35] He was admired for his diplomatic skill and his commitment to steering Iraq towards self-determination.[35] Untimely, he died from a heart attack on 8 September 1933, leaving his son Ghazi to inherit the throne.[35] King Ghazi's reign was brief and turbulent, as Iraq was impacted by numerous coup attempts.[35] He died in a motor accident in 1939, passing the throne to his young son, Faisal II, who ascended to the throne at just 3 years old.[35] Faisal II's uncle, Crown Prince Abdullah, assumed regency until the young king came of age.[35] On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the